LC-HRMS Profiling and Antibacterial Activity of Extract and Fraction of Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl. Fruit
Keywords:
LC-HRMS; untargeted profiling; antimicrobial activity; Phaleria macrocarpa; broth microdilution
Abstract
Antibiotics have been found to treat a variety of infectious diseases, which is a crucial health issue. However, the emergence of drug resistance has created new challenges for researchers. Herbal medicine, especially Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl (as known as Mahkota Dewa plants), can be an alternative antibacterial agent. This study aims to determine the Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC) of water extracts, ethyl acetate fraction, water fractions, and butanol fractions of peels, fruits, and seed of Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl. Identification of prediction compounds in the highest antimicrobial activity of the samples are also determined. The extraction method used was infusion with water solvent. Extraction was carried out on the peel, fruit, and seed of Mahkota Dewa. These three water extracts were isolated by a separatory funnel using ethyl acetate and n-butanol solvents. Antimicrobial testing using the broth microdilution method. This assay revealed promising activity against both gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli ATCC 8739) and gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 29213, Staphylococcus epidermidis, and Propionibacterium acnes ATCC 6919). The most active samples as an antibacterial were ethyl acetate fraction of flesh fruits (EAFFF) with MIC value against E. coli, S. aureus, S. epidermidis, and P. acnes were 12.500, 6.250, 3.125, and 12.500 ppm, whereas each MBC values were 12.500, 6.250, 6.250, and 25.000 ppm respectively. Two of the most active fractions were identified by predicting its antibacterial compounds using LC-HRMS. The results showed the presence of 10 predicted compounds in EAFF which had antibacterial properties including 2’, 4’, 3, 4, alpha-pentahydroxy dihydrochalcone 3’-C-xyloside, 5,7,3’4’,5’-pentahydroxy-3,6,8-trimethoxyflavone, p-cymene, taxifolin 3-apioside, eucalyptin, 2-(2’-O-benzoyl)-C-β-D-glucopyranosil-1,3,6,7-tetrahydroxyxanthone, (+)-ar-Turmerone, 2-hydroxy-N’-[(E)-(2-hydroxy-3,5-dinitrophenyl)methylene]-2,2-diphenylacetohydrazide, picroside II, and vitexin 2”-p-hydroxybenzoate while n-butanol fraction of flesh fruit (BFFF) showed 8 predicted antibacterial compounds, 2’, 4’, 3, 4, alpha-pentahydroxy dihydrochalcone 3’-C-xyloside, 5, 7, 3’, 4’, 5’-pentahydroxy-3,6,8-trimethoxyflavone, glycitein, taxifolin 3-apioside, (-)-caryophyllene oxide, α-curcumene, 6,4’-dihydroxyurone 4-O-rutinoside, and α-santonin.
References
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Aslan, H. (2023). The influence of halal awareness, halal certificate, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, attitude and trust on purchase intention of culinary products among Muslim costumers in Turkey. International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science, 32, 100726. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2023.100726
Astriyani, W., Surjowardojo, P., & Susilorini, T. E. (2017). Daya hambat ekstrak buah mahkota dewa (Phaleria macrocarpa L.) dengan pelarut ethanol dan aquades terhadap bakteri Staphylococcus aureus penyebab mastitis pada sapi perah. TERNAK TROPIKA Journal of Tropical Animal Production, 18(2), 8-13. https://doi.org/10.21776/ub.jtapro.2017.018.02.2
Astuti, H. (2015). Uji aktivitas antibakteri ekstrak etanol dan ekstrak air daun bandotan (Ageratum conyzoides L.) terhadap Staphylococcus aureus dan Escherichia coli. Majalah Farmaseutik, 11(1), 290-293. https://doi.org/10.22146/farmaseutik.v11i1.24118
Astutiningsih, C., Nuzulia, F., & Suprijono, A. (2012). Isolasi dan identifikasi senyawa alkaloid buah mahkota dewa (Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl) secara spektrofotometri Uv-Vis dan IR serta uji toksisitas akut terhadap larva Artemia salina Leach. Jurnal Farmasi Sains dan Komunitas (Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Community), 9(2), 66-70. https://doi.org/10.24071/jpsc.0072
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Easmin, M. S., Sarker, M. Z. I., Ferdosh, S., Shamsudin, S. H., Yunus, K. B., Uddin, M. S., Sarker, M. M. R., Akanda, M. J. H., Hossain, M. S., & Khalil, H. A. (2015). Bioactive compounds and advanced processing technology: Phaleria macrocarpa (sheff.) Boerl, a review. Journal of Chemical Technology & Biotechnology, 90(6), 981-991. https://doi.org/10.1002/jctb.4603
Farha, A. K., Yang, Q. Q., Kim, G., Li, H. B., Zhu, F., Liu, H. Y., Gan, R. Y., & Corke, H. (2020). Tannins as an alternative to antibiotics. Food Bioscience, 38(2020), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2020.100751
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Gyrdymova, Y. V., & Rubtsova, S. A. (2022). Caryophyllene and caryophyllene oxide: A variety of chemical transformations and biological activities. Chemical Papers, 1-39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11696-021-01865-8
Hendra, R., Ahmad, S., Sukari, A., Shukor, M. Y., & Oskoueian, E. (2011). Flavonoid analyses and antimicrobial activity of various parts of Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl fruit. International journal of molecular sciences, 12(6), 3422-3431. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2023.100726
Hossain, T. J. (2024). Methods for screening and evaluation of antimicrobial activity: A review of protocols, advantages, and limitations. European Journal of Microbiology and Immunology, 14(2), 97–115. https://doi.org/10.1556/1886.2024.00035
Jinoni, D. A., Benjamin, M. A. Z., Mus, A. A., Goh, L. P. W., Rusdi, N. A., & Awang, M. A. (2024). Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl.(Mahkota Dewa) seed essential oils: Extraction yield, volatile components, antibacterial, and antioxidant activities based on different solvents using Soxhlet extraction. Kuwait Journal of Science, 51(2), 100173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.kjs.2023.100173
Kowalska-Krochmal, B., & Dudek-Wicher, R. (2021). The minimum inhibitory concentration of antibiotics: Methods, interpretation, clinical relevance. Pathogens, 10(2), 165. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10020165
Leswana, N. F., & Sianturi, S. (2024). Antioxidant Activity of Tahongai Leaves (Klenhovia hospital L.) Infusa Using DPPH Method. JPK: Jurnal Proteksi Kesehatan, 13(1), 36-45. https://doi.org/10.36929/jpk.v13i1.791
Marchese, A., Arciola, C. R., Barbieri, R., Silva, A. S., Nabavi, S. F., Tsetegho Sokeng, A. J., ... & Nabavi, S. M. (2017). Update on monoterpenes as antimicrobial agents: A particular focus on p-cymene. Materials, 10(8), 4-15. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma10080947
Mulqie, L., Suwendar, S., Rajih, M. F., Mardliyani, D., Yumniati, I., Widiasari, W., & Nurrosyidah, Z. (2022). Aktivitas Antibakteri Ekstrak Etanol Daun Jambu Air [Eugenia aqueum (Burm. F) Alston] Dengan Mikrodilusi Agar. Jurnal Ilmiah Farmasi Farmasyifa, 5(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.29313/jiff.v5i1.7849
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Nugroho, D. A., & Wardani, T. S. (2022). Uji Aktivitas Antibakteri Ekstrak Etanol Dan Fraksi N-Heksan, Fraksi Etil Asetat, Fraksi Air Daun Salam (Syzygium polyanthum) Terhadap Bakteri Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923. Prosiding Seminar Informasi Kesehatan Nasional, 2022, 376-388. https://doi.org/10.47701/sikenas.vi.2084
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Oriola, A. O., & Kar, P. (2024). Naturally Occurring Xanthones and Their Biological Implications. Molecules, 29(17), 1-26. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29174241
Othman, S. N. A. M., Sarker, S. D., Talukdar, A. D., Ningthoujam, S. S., Khamis, S., & Basar, N. (2014). Chemical constituents and antibacterial activitiy of Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl. Int J Pharm Sci Res, 5(8), 3157-62. http://dx.doi.org/10.13040/IJPSR.0975-8232.5(8).3157-62
Popiołek, Ł. (2021). Updated information on antimicrobial activity of hydrazide–hydrazones. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 22(17), 9389. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22179389
Punchihewage-Don, A. J., Hawkins, J., Adnan, A. M., Hashem, F., & Parveen, S. (2022). The outbreaks and prevalence of antimicrobial resistant Salmonella in poultry in the United States: An overview. Heliyon, 8(11). e11571. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e11571
Retnaningrum, D. N., & Rahmawati, W. (2023). Antibacterial Activity Test of Mahkota Dewa Fruit (Phaleria macrocarpa) Extract against Escherichia Coli Bacteria. EMBRIO, 15(1), 34-40. https://doi.org/10.36456/embrio.v15i1.6533
Siregar, H. M., Purwantoro, R. S., Praptiwi, P., & Agusta, A. (2018). Antibacterial potency of simple fractions of ethyl acetate extract of Begonia baliensis. Nusantara Bioscience, 10(3), 159-163. https://doi.org/10.13057/nusbiosci/n100305
Sudheer, A., Vijaya, M., & Devanna, N. (2021). Functional role of polyphenol rich butanol fraction of Rivea ornata in experimentally induced myocardial infarction: Preservation of Cell viability and Free radical neutralization. Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science, 11(6), 94-104. https://doi.org/10.7324/JAPS.2021.110611
Sugiwati, S., Setiasih, S., & Afifah, E. (2009). Antihyperglycemic activity of the mahkota dewa Phaleria macrocarpa (scheff.) boerl. Leaf extracts as an alpha glucosidase inhibitor. Makara J Heal Res, 13(2), 74-78. https://doi.org/10.7454/msk.v13i2.364
Sukertiasih, N. K., Megawati, F., Meriyani, H., & Sanjaya, D. A. (2021). Studi retrospektif gambaran resistensi bakteri terhadap antibiotik. Jurnal Ilmiah Medicamento, 7(2), 108-111. https://doi.org/10.36733/medicamento.v7i2.2177
Tobi, C. H. B., & Pratiwi, M. E. (2023). Identifikasi Senyawa Flavonoid dan Uji Aktivitas Antibakteri Ekstrak Terpurifikasi Daun Beluntas (Pluchea Indica L.) terhadap Staphylococcus aureus: Qualitative-Quantitative Test of Flavonoid Compound and Antibacterial Activity of Beluntas Leaves Purified Extract against Staphylococcus aureus. Jurnal Sains dan Kesehatan, 5(5), 766-776. https://doi.org/10.30872/jsk.v5i5.589
Villanueva, X., Zhen, L., Ares, J. N., Vackier, T., Lange, H., Crestini, C., & Steenackers, H. P. (2023). Effect of chemical modifications of tannins on their antimicrobial and antibiofilm effect against Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. Frontiers in Microbiology, 13(2020), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.987164
Wahyuni, S., Patang, P., & Putra, R. P. (2023). Kajian Minimum Inhibitor Concentration (MIC) dan Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC) Ekstrak Kulit Terong Ungu (Solanum melongena L) Sebagai Pengembangan Antibakteri Herbal. Jurnal Pendidikan Teknologi Pertanian, 9(2), 249-262. https://doi.org/10.26858/jptp.v9i2.686249
Weinstein, M. P. (2019). Performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute.
Xie, Y., Yang, W., Tang, F., Chen, X., & Ren, L. (2014). Antibacterial Activities of Flavonoids: Structure-Activity Relationship and Mechanism. Current Medicinal Chemistry, 22(1), 132–149. https://doi.org/10.2174/0929867321666140916113443
Zahrah, H., Mustika, A., & Debora, K. (2018). Aktivitas antibakteri dan perubahan morfologi dari Propionibacterium acnes setelah pemberian ekstrak Curcuma xanthorrhiza. Jurnal Biosains Pascasarjana, 20(3), 160-169. https://doi.org/10.20473/jbp.v20i3.2018.160-169
Anwar, K., Rafi, M., Faridah, N., Triyasmono, L., & Endro Nugroho, A. (2018). In Vivo Wound Healing Activity of Ethyl Acetate and n-Butanol Fraction of Ampelocissus rubiginosa Lauterb. Tuberous Root in Incisional Wound Model Rats. International Conference On Pharmaceutical Research And Practice. https://dspace.uii.ac.id/handle/123456789/12329
Ahmad, R., Mazlan, M. K. N., Aziz, A. F. A., Gazzali, A. M., Rawa, M. S. A., & Wahab, H. A. (2023). Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl.: An updated review of pharmacological effects, toxicity studies, and separation techniques. Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal, 31(6), 874-888. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsps.2023.04.006
Aslan, H. (2023). The influence of halal awareness, halal certificate, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, attitude and trust on purchase intention of culinary products among Muslim costumers in Turkey. International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science, 32, 100726. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2023.100726
Astriyani, W., Surjowardojo, P., & Susilorini, T. E. (2017). Daya hambat ekstrak buah mahkota dewa (Phaleria macrocarpa L.) dengan pelarut ethanol dan aquades terhadap bakteri Staphylococcus aureus penyebab mastitis pada sapi perah. TERNAK TROPIKA Journal of Tropical Animal Production, 18(2), 8-13. https://doi.org/10.21776/ub.jtapro.2017.018.02.2
Astuti, H. (2015). Uji aktivitas antibakteri ekstrak etanol dan ekstrak air daun bandotan (Ageratum conyzoides L.) terhadap Staphylococcus aureus dan Escherichia coli. Majalah Farmaseutik, 11(1), 290-293. https://doi.org/10.22146/farmaseutik.v11i1.24118
Astutiningsih, C., Nuzulia, F., & Suprijono, A. (2012). Isolasi dan identifikasi senyawa alkaloid buah mahkota dewa (Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl) secara spektrofotometri Uv-Vis dan IR serta uji toksisitas akut terhadap larva Artemia salina Leach. Jurnal Farmasi Sains dan Komunitas (Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Community), 9(2), 66-70. https://doi.org/10.24071/jpsc.0072
Buulolo, N. T. N. (2018). Uji efektivitas Antibakteri Eshcerichia coli terhadap Buah Mahkota Dewa (Phaleria macrocarpa) Daun pepaya (Carica papaya L.) dan Paria (Momordia charantina). Scientia Journal, 7(2018), 159-168.
Cushnie, T. T., & Lamb, A. J. (2005). Antimicrobial activity of flavonoids. International journal of antimicrobial agents, 26(5), 343-356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2005.09.002
Easmin, M. S., Sarker, M. Z. I., Ferdosh, S., Shamsudin, S. H., Yunus, K. B., Uddin, M. S., Sarker, M. M. R., Akanda, M. J. H., Hossain, M. S., & Khalil, H. A. (2015). Bioactive compounds and advanced processing technology: Phaleria macrocarpa (sheff.) Boerl, a review. Journal of Chemical Technology & Biotechnology, 90(6), 981-991. https://doi.org/10.1002/jctb.4603
Farha, A. K., Yang, Q. Q., Kim, G., Li, H. B., Zhu, F., Liu, H. Y., Gan, R. Y., & Corke, H. (2020). Tannins as an alternative to antibiotics. Food Bioscience, 38(2020), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2020.100751
Farhadi, F., Khameneh, B., Iranshahi, M., & Iranshahy, M. (2019). Antibacterial activity of flavonoids and their structure–activity relationship: An update review. Phytotherapy Research, 33(1), 13-40. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.6208
Gyrdymova, Y. V., & Rubtsova, S. A. (2022). Caryophyllene and caryophyllene oxide: A variety of chemical transformations and biological activities. Chemical Papers, 1-39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11696-021-01865-8
Hendra, R., Ahmad, S., Sukari, A., Shukor, M. Y., & Oskoueian, E. (2011). Flavonoid analyses and antimicrobial activity of various parts of Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl fruit. International journal of molecular sciences, 12(6), 3422-3431. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2023.100726
Hossain, T. J. (2024). Methods for screening and evaluation of antimicrobial activity: A review of protocols, advantages, and limitations. European Journal of Microbiology and Immunology, 14(2), 97–115. https://doi.org/10.1556/1886.2024.00035
Jinoni, D. A., Benjamin, M. A. Z., Mus, A. A., Goh, L. P. W., Rusdi, N. A., & Awang, M. A. (2024). Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl.(Mahkota Dewa) seed essential oils: Extraction yield, volatile components, antibacterial, and antioxidant activities based on different solvents using Soxhlet extraction. Kuwait Journal of Science, 51(2), 100173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.kjs.2023.100173
Kowalska-Krochmal, B., & Dudek-Wicher, R. (2021). The minimum inhibitory concentration of antibiotics: Methods, interpretation, clinical relevance. Pathogens, 10(2), 165. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10020165
Leswana, N. F., & Sianturi, S. (2024). Antioxidant Activity of Tahongai Leaves (Klenhovia hospital L.) Infusa Using DPPH Method. JPK: Jurnal Proteksi Kesehatan, 13(1), 36-45. https://doi.org/10.36929/jpk.v13i1.791
Marchese, A., Arciola, C. R., Barbieri, R., Silva, A. S., Nabavi, S. F., Tsetegho Sokeng, A. J., ... & Nabavi, S. M. (2017). Update on monoterpenes as antimicrobial agents: A particular focus on p-cymene. Materials, 10(8), 4-15. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma10080947
Mulqie, L., Suwendar, S., Rajih, M. F., Mardliyani, D., Yumniati, I., Widiasari, W., & Nurrosyidah, Z. (2022). Aktivitas Antibakteri Ekstrak Etanol Daun Jambu Air [Eugenia aqueum (Burm. F) Alston] Dengan Mikrodilusi Agar. Jurnal Ilmiah Farmasi Farmasyifa, 5(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.29313/jiff.v5i1.7849
Mundy, L., Pendry, B., & Rahman, M. (2016). Antimicrobial resistance and synergy in herbal medicine. Journal of Herbal Medicine, 6(2), 53-58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hermed.2016.03.001
Nugroho, D. A., & Wardani, T. S. (2022). Uji Aktivitas Antibakteri Ekstrak Etanol Dan Fraksi N-Heksan, Fraksi Etil Asetat, Fraksi Air Daun Salam (Syzygium polyanthum) Terhadap Bakteri Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923. Prosiding Seminar Informasi Kesehatan Nasional, 2022, 376-388. https://doi.org/10.47701/sikenas.vi.2084
Nurulita, Y., Yuharmen, Y., Fitri, A., Sari, I. E., Sary, D. N., & Nugroho, T. T. (2022). Identifikasi Metabolit Sekunder Sekresi Jamur Lokal Tanah Gambut Riau Penicillium sp. LBKURCC34 Sebagai Antimikroba. Chimica et Natura Acta, 10(3), 124-133. https://doi.org/10.24198/cna.v10.n3.45994
Oriola, A. O., & Kar, P. (2024). Naturally Occurring Xanthones and Their Biological Implications. Molecules, 29(17), 1-26. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29174241
Othman, S. N. A. M., Sarker, S. D., Talukdar, A. D., Ningthoujam, S. S., Khamis, S., & Basar, N. (2014). Chemical constituents and antibacterial activitiy of Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl. Int J Pharm Sci Res, 5(8), 3157-62. http://dx.doi.org/10.13040/IJPSR.0975-8232.5(8).3157-62
Popiołek, Ł. (2021). Updated information on antimicrobial activity of hydrazide–hydrazones. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 22(17), 9389. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22179389
Punchihewage-Don, A. J., Hawkins, J., Adnan, A. M., Hashem, F., & Parveen, S. (2022). The outbreaks and prevalence of antimicrobial resistant Salmonella in poultry in the United States: An overview. Heliyon, 8(11). e11571. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e11571
Retnaningrum, D. N., & Rahmawati, W. (2023). Antibacterial Activity Test of Mahkota Dewa Fruit (Phaleria macrocarpa) Extract against Escherichia Coli Bacteria. EMBRIO, 15(1), 34-40. https://doi.org/10.36456/embrio.v15i1.6533
Siregar, H. M., Purwantoro, R. S., Praptiwi, P., & Agusta, A. (2018). Antibacterial potency of simple fractions of ethyl acetate extract of Begonia baliensis. Nusantara Bioscience, 10(3), 159-163. https://doi.org/10.13057/nusbiosci/n100305
Sudheer, A., Vijaya, M., & Devanna, N. (2021). Functional role of polyphenol rich butanol fraction of Rivea ornata in experimentally induced myocardial infarction: Preservation of Cell viability and Free radical neutralization. Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science, 11(6), 94-104. https://doi.org/10.7324/JAPS.2021.110611
Sugiwati, S., Setiasih, S., & Afifah, E. (2009). Antihyperglycemic activity of the mahkota dewa Phaleria macrocarpa (scheff.) boerl. Leaf extracts as an alpha glucosidase inhibitor. Makara J Heal Res, 13(2), 74-78. https://doi.org/10.7454/msk.v13i2.364
Sukertiasih, N. K., Megawati, F., Meriyani, H., & Sanjaya, D. A. (2021). Studi retrospektif gambaran resistensi bakteri terhadap antibiotik. Jurnal Ilmiah Medicamento, 7(2), 108-111. https://doi.org/10.36733/medicamento.v7i2.2177
Tobi, C. H. B., & Pratiwi, M. E. (2023). Identifikasi Senyawa Flavonoid dan Uji Aktivitas Antibakteri Ekstrak Terpurifikasi Daun Beluntas (Pluchea Indica L.) terhadap Staphylococcus aureus: Qualitative-Quantitative Test of Flavonoid Compound and Antibacterial Activity of Beluntas Leaves Purified Extract against Staphylococcus aureus. Jurnal Sains dan Kesehatan, 5(5), 766-776. https://doi.org/10.30872/jsk.v5i5.589
Villanueva, X., Zhen, L., Ares, J. N., Vackier, T., Lange, H., Crestini, C., & Steenackers, H. P. (2023). Effect of chemical modifications of tannins on their antimicrobial and antibiofilm effect against Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. Frontiers in Microbiology, 13(2020), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.987164
Wahyuni, S., Patang, P., & Putra, R. P. (2023). Kajian Minimum Inhibitor Concentration (MIC) dan Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC) Ekstrak Kulit Terong Ungu (Solanum melongena L) Sebagai Pengembangan Antibakteri Herbal. Jurnal Pendidikan Teknologi Pertanian, 9(2), 249-262. https://doi.org/10.26858/jptp.v9i2.686249
Weinstein, M. P. (2019). Performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute.
Xie, Y., Yang, W., Tang, F., Chen, X., & Ren, L. (2014). Antibacterial Activities of Flavonoids: Structure-Activity Relationship and Mechanism. Current Medicinal Chemistry, 22(1), 132–149. https://doi.org/10.2174/0929867321666140916113443
Zahrah, H., Mustika, A., & Debora, K. (2018). Aktivitas antibakteri dan perubahan morfologi dari Propionibacterium acnes setelah pemberian ekstrak Curcuma xanthorrhiza. Jurnal Biosains Pascasarjana, 20(3), 160-169. https://doi.org/10.20473/jbp.v20i3.2018.160-169
Published
2025-11-10
How to Cite
Imansari, M., Firdaus, W. A., Anggreini, S. D. S., Taufiqurahman, & Setyaningrum, D. L. (2025). LC-HRMS Profiling and Antibacterial Activity of Extract and Fraction of Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl. Fruit. Indonesian Journal of Pharmacy. https://doi.org/10.22146/ijp.18859
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Research Article
