DNA-Protecting and Radical Scavenging Activities of Coffee Husk (Cascara) Robusta and Arabica Extracts
Keywords:
cascara, DNA protection, antioxidant, flavonoid compounds, phenolic compounds
Abstract
Increased coffee production leads to higher coffee husk (Cascara) waste, which presents an environmental challenge. Cascara has mainly been utilized for fertilizer and animal feed, offering limited economic value. The compounds in cascara have antioxidant properties that promise to prevent chronic diseases linked to oxidative stress, including cancer and aging. However, no evidence exists that cascara effectively safeguards DNA from disease-causing free radicals. The study aimed to evaluate the antioxidant and DNA damage protection properties of cascara from Robusta and Arabica coffee, which were extracted using water and 70% ethanol. Antioxidant activity was assessed using the DPPH radical scavenging method, and DNA protection was evaluated by subjecting the extract to a pUC19 cutting reaction with hydroxyl radicals from the Fenton reaction. The amount of phenolic and flavonoid compounds was quantitatively analysed using the colorimetric method, while the qualitative analysis of flavonoid compounds was conducted using thin-layer chromatography (TLC). The ethanol extract of Robusta cascara demonstrates the highest antioxidant activity with IC50 value of 297.74 mg/L and a 62.13% inhibition of DNA damage. This efficacy is attributed to the abundance of phenolic compounds (214.80 mg CAE/g extract) and flavonoids (13.61 mg QE/g extract) present in the extract, which are believed to contribute to these activities through radical scavenging, iron chelation, and stabilization of DNA structure. Cascara Robusta and Arabica extracts feature distinct flavonoid profiles, as evidenced by the TLC findings. This suggests that the type of flavonoid in the extract also influences antioxidant activity and DNA protection in addition to the quantity of flavonoid and phenolic compounds. These findings suggest that Robusta cascara's ethanol extract is a promising source of natural antioxidants and DNA protective agents, with potential applications in pharmaceutical and nutraceutical products to prevent various chronic diseases linked to oxidative stress.
References
Baskar, V., Venkatesh, R., & Ramalingam, S. (2018). Flavonoids (antioxidants systems) in higher plants and their response to stresses. In Antioxidants and Antioxidant Enzymes in Higher Plants. pp. 253–268. Springer International Publishing AG, Switzerland.
Bojórquez-Quintal, E., Xotlanihua-Flores, D., Bacchetta, L., Diretto, G., Maccioni, O., Frusciante, S., Rojas-Abarca, L. M., & Sánchez-Rodríguez, E. (2024b). Bioactive Compounds and Valorization of Coffee By-Products from the Origin: A Circular Economy Model from Local Practices in Zongolica, Mexico. Plants, 13(19), 2741.
BPS-Statistics Indonesia. (2024, November 29). Statistik Kopi Indonesia 2023—Badan Pusat Statistik Indonesia. Retrieved from https://www.bps.go.id/id/publication/2024/11/29/d748d9bf594118fe112fc51e/statistik-kopi-indonesia-2023.html.
Castellani, R. J., Nunomura, A., Rolston, R. K., Moreira, P. I., Takeda, A., Perry, G., & Smith, M. A. (2008). Sublethal RNA oxidation as a mechanism for neurodegenerative disease. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 9(5), 789–806.
Chandimali, N., Bak, S. G., Park, E. H., Lim, H.-J., Won, Y.-S., Kim, E.-K., Park, S.-I., & Lee, S. J. (2025). Free radicals and their impact on health and antioxidant defenses: A review. Cell Death Discovery, 11(1), 19.
Dos Santos, A., Gomes, P. G. C., Buarque, F. S., Soares, C. M. F., Bjerk, T. R., & Lima, Á. S. (2023). Novel strategy for extraction and partitioning of phenol compounds from industrial residue of seriguela (Spondia purpurea L.) using aqueous two-phase systems. Food and Bioproducts Processing, 141, 219–229.
García, L. R. P., Biasetto, C. R., Araujo, A. R., & del Bianchi, V. L. (2015). Enhanced extraction of phenolic compounds from coffee industry’s residues through solid state fermentation by Penicillium purpurogenum. Food Science and Technology (Brazil), 35(4), 704–711.
Garcia-Alonso, F. J., Guidarelli, A., & Periago, M. J. (2007). Phenolic-rich juice prevents DNA single-strand breakage and cytotoxicity caused by tert-butylhydroperoxide in U937 cells: The role of iron chelation. Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry, 18(7), 457–466.
Ghaffar, N., & Perveen, A. (2024). Solvent polarity effects on extraction yield, phenolic content, and antioxidant properties of Malvaceae family seeds: A comparative study. New Zealand Journal of Botany. 1-11.
Heeger, A., Kosińska-Cagnazzo, A., Cantergiani, E., & Andlauer, W. (2017). Bioactives of coffee cherry pulp and its utilisation for production of Cascara beverage. Food Chemistry, 221, 969–975.
Jiamjariyatam, R., Phucharoenrak, P., Samosorn, S., Dolsophon, K., Lorliam, W., Krajangsang, S., & Tantayotai, P. (2023). Influence of Different Extraction Methods on the Changes in Bioactive Compound Composition and Antioxidant Properties of Solid-State Fermented Coffee Husk Extracts. The Scientific World Journal, 2023(1), 6698056.
Jun, M., Fu, H.-Y., Hong, J., Wan, X., Yang, C. s., & Ho, C.-T. (2003). Comparison of Antioxidant Activities of Isoflavones from Kudzu Root (Pueraria lobata Ohwi). Journal of Food Science, 68(6), 2117–2122.
Junedi, S., Nurwijayanto, A., Simamora, D. D., Palimbongan, A. M., & Arsiningtyas, I. S. (2023). Potential Extracts of Melastomataceae Species from Mount Merapi National Park as Sunprotection Material with Antioxidation and Antiglycation Activities. Tropical Journal of Natural Product Research, 7(1), 2172-2177.
Kanakis, C. D., Tarantilis, P. A., Polissiou, M. G., & Tajmir-Riahi, H.-A. (2006). Interaction of antioxidant flavonoids with tRNA: Intercalation or external binding and comparison with flavonoid-DNA adducts. DNA and Cell Biology, 25(2), 116–123.
Kim, Y. G., & Park, H. Y. (2004). The effects of pycnogenol on DNA damage in vitro and expression of superoxide dismutase and HP1 in Escherichia coli SOD and catalase deficient mutant cells. Phytotherapy Research, 18(11), 900–905.
Kumar, P., Kumar, S., Tripathi, M. K., Mehta, N., Ranjan, R., Bhat, Z. F., & Singh, P. K. (2013). Flavonoids in the development of functional meat products: A review. Veterinary World, 6(8), 579–585.
Lestari, W., & Hajar, S. (2023). Safety evaluation and effects of cascara pulp Gayo Arabica coffee cream as anti-photoaging in animal model. Narra J, 3(2), e204.
Lestari, W., Hasballah, K., Listiawan, M. Y., & Sofia, S. (2023a). Antioxidant Activity and Compound Analysis Using Various Types of Solvents on Cascara Pulp Arabica Gayo Coffee to Treat Skin Aging. International Journal on Advanced Science, Engineering and Information Technology, 13(2), 530–535.
Lestari, W., Hasballah, K., Listiawan, M. Y., & Sofia, S. (2023b). Antioxidant and phytometabolite profiles of ethanolic extract from the cascara pulp of Coffea arabica collected from Gayo Highland: A study for potential anti-photoaging agent. F1000Research, 12.
Li, X., Mai, W., & Chen, D. (2014). Chemical study on protective effect against hydroxyl-induced DNA damage and antioxidant mechanism of myricitrin. Journal of the Chinese Chemical Society, 61(3), 383–390.
Lugasi, A. (1997). Natural Antioxidants Chemistry, Health Effects, and Applications. Edited by F. Shahidi. VIII and 432 pages, numerous figures and tables. AOCS Press, Champaign, Illinois, 1997. Price: 105.00 U$. Food / Nahrung, 41(5), 321–321.
Maddu, N. (2019). Diseases Related to Types of Free Radicals. In Antioxidants . IntechOpen, United Kingdom.
Maleš, Ž., Šarić, D., & Bojić, M. (2013). Quantitative Determination of Flavonoids and Chlorogenic Acid in the Leaves of Arbutus unedo L. Using Thin Layer Chromatography. Journal of Analytical Methods in Chemistry, 2013(1), 385473.
Mojica, B. E., Fong, L. E., Biju, D., Muharram, A., Davis, I. M., Vela, K. O., Rios, D., Osorio-Camacena, E., Kaur, B., Rojas, S. M., & Forester, S. C. (2018). The Impact of the Roast Levels of Coffee Extracts on their Potential Anticancer Activities. Journal of Food Science, 83(4), 1125–1130.
Parveen, N., & Shadab, G. G. H. A. (2017). The dual clastogenic and anti-clastogenic properties of quercetin is dose dependent. Frontiers in Bioscience - Scholar, 9(1), 139–153.
Phan-Van, T., Pham-Quang, H., & Do, A. D. (2024). Cascara kombucha potential as a functional food for fasting glucose regulation, cholesterol control, and liver function modulation: In vitro and in vivo study. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 59(11), 8908–8916.
Rabassa, M., Zamora-Ros, R., Tulipani, S., Khymenets, O., Urpi-Sarda, M., Garcia-Aloy, M., Boto, M., Vázquez, R., Rotches-Ribalta, M., Chiva-Blanch, G., Trespalacios, M. P., Llorach, R., & Andres-Lacueva, C. (2012). Flavonoids: From food and its implication in human health. In Handbook on Flavonoids: Dietary Sources, Properties and Health Benefits (pp. 427–442), Nova Science Publishers, Inc., USA.
Rohaya, S., Anwar, S. H., Amhar, A. B., Sutriana, A., & Muzaifa, M. (2023). Antioxidant activity and physicochemical composition of coffee pulp obtained from three coffee varieties in Aceh, Indonesia. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1182(1). 012063.
Schaich, K. M. (2022). Lipid Antioxidants: More than Just Lipid Radical Quenchers. In Lipid Oxidation in Food and Biological Systems: A Physical Chemistry Perspective (pp. 151–184). Springer International Publishing AG, Switzerland.
Shao, B., Mao, L., Tang, M., Yan, Z.-Y., Shao, J., Huang, C.-H., Sheng, Z.-G., & Zhu, B.-Z. (2021). Caffeic acid phenyl ester (Cape) protects against iron-mediated cellular dna damage through its strong iron-binding ability and high lipophilicity. Antioxidants, 10(5), 798.
Silva, M. de O., Honfoga, J. N. B., Medeiros, L. L. de, Madruga, M. S., & Bezerra, T. K. A. (2021). Obtaining Bioactive Compounds from the Coffee Husk (Coffea arabica L.) Using Different Extraction Methods. Molecules, 26(1), 46.
Speisky, H., Shahidi, F., de Camargo, A. C., & Fuentes, J. (2022). Revisiting the Oxidation of Flavonoids: Loss, Conservation or Enhancement of Their Antioxidant Properties. Antioxidants, 11(1), 133.
Utami, N. F., Elya, B., Hayun, H., & Kusmardi, K. (2024). Quantification of Active Compounds from Coffea canephora Pierre ex A.Froehner cascara and their Potential Against MCF-7 and HeLa. Pharmacognosy Journal, 16(3), 509–518.
Utami, N. F., Elya, B., Hayun, & Kusmardi. (2022). Measurement of quality non-specific and specific-parameters of 70% ethanol extract and simplicia from cascara coffee robusta (Coffea canephora L.) and its potency as antioxidant. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1116(1), 012008.
Vuolo, M. M., Lima, V. S., & Maróstica Junior, M. R. (2019). Phenolic Compounds. In Bioactive Compounds: Health Benefits and Potential Applications (pp. 33–50), Elsevier, Germany.
Wang, C.-S., Tian, L.-L., Zhang, J.-G., Ji, X.-W., & Zhao, G.-R. (2012). Protective effect of five natural phenolic acids against DNA oxidative damage in vitro. Chinese Journal of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 26(4), 529–533.
Wang, W.-T., Liao, S.-F., Wu, Z.-L., Chang, C.-W., & Wu, J.-Y. (2020). Simultaneous study of antioxidant activity, DNA protection and anti-inflammatory effect of Vernonia amygdalina leaves extracts. PLOS ONE, 15(7), e0235717.
Zhang, Z., Zhang, Y., Zhang, A., Liu, J., Liu, T., Zhao, J., & Zhang, S. (2024). Flos Sophorae Immaturus extracts: Effects of different extraction solvents on antioxidant, antimicrobial activities and active ingredients. South African Journal of Botany, 170, 358–366.
Zhao, C., Dodin, G., Yuan, C., Chen, H., Zheng, R., Jia, Z., & Fan, B.-T. (2005). “In vitro” protection of DNA from Fenton reaction by plant polyphenol verbascoside. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta - General Subjects, 1723(1–3), 114–123.
Zhao, Z. (2019). Iron and oxidizing species in oxidative stress and Alzheimer’s disease. Aging Medicine, 2(2), 82–87.
Zheng, Y., Li ,Xiao-Kun, Wang ,Yuehui, & and Cai, L. (2008). The Role of Zinc, Copper and Iron in the Pathogenesis of Diabetes and Diabetic Complications: Therapeutic Effects by Chelators. Hemoglobin, 32(1–2), 135–145.
Zoca, S. M., Penn, C. J., Rosolem, C. A., Alves, A. R., Neto, L. O., & Martins, M. M. (2014). Coffee processing residues as a soil potassium amendment. International Journal of Recycling of Organic Waste in Agriculture, 3(4), 155–165.
Bojórquez-Quintal, E., Xotlanihua-Flores, D., Bacchetta, L., Diretto, G., Maccioni, O., Frusciante, S., Rojas-Abarca, L. M., & Sánchez-Rodríguez, E. (2024b). Bioactive Compounds and Valorization of Coffee By-Products from the Origin: A Circular Economy Model from Local Practices in Zongolica, Mexico. Plants, 13(19), 2741.
BPS-Statistics Indonesia. (2024, November 29). Statistik Kopi Indonesia 2023—Badan Pusat Statistik Indonesia. Retrieved from https://www.bps.go.id/id/publication/2024/11/29/d748d9bf594118fe112fc51e/statistik-kopi-indonesia-2023.html.
Castellani, R. J., Nunomura, A., Rolston, R. K., Moreira, P. I., Takeda, A., Perry, G., & Smith, M. A. (2008). Sublethal RNA oxidation as a mechanism for neurodegenerative disease. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 9(5), 789–806.
Chandimali, N., Bak, S. G., Park, E. H., Lim, H.-J., Won, Y.-S., Kim, E.-K., Park, S.-I., & Lee, S. J. (2025). Free radicals and their impact on health and antioxidant defenses: A review. Cell Death Discovery, 11(1), 19.
Dos Santos, A., Gomes, P. G. C., Buarque, F. S., Soares, C. M. F., Bjerk, T. R., & Lima, Á. S. (2023). Novel strategy for extraction and partitioning of phenol compounds from industrial residue of seriguela (Spondia purpurea L.) using aqueous two-phase systems. Food and Bioproducts Processing, 141, 219–229.
García, L. R. P., Biasetto, C. R., Araujo, A. R., & del Bianchi, V. L. (2015). Enhanced extraction of phenolic compounds from coffee industry’s residues through solid state fermentation by Penicillium purpurogenum. Food Science and Technology (Brazil), 35(4), 704–711.
Garcia-Alonso, F. J., Guidarelli, A., & Periago, M. J. (2007). Phenolic-rich juice prevents DNA single-strand breakage and cytotoxicity caused by tert-butylhydroperoxide in U937 cells: The role of iron chelation. Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry, 18(7), 457–466.
Ghaffar, N., & Perveen, A. (2024). Solvent polarity effects on extraction yield, phenolic content, and antioxidant properties of Malvaceae family seeds: A comparative study. New Zealand Journal of Botany. 1-11.
Heeger, A., Kosińska-Cagnazzo, A., Cantergiani, E., & Andlauer, W. (2017). Bioactives of coffee cherry pulp and its utilisation for production of Cascara beverage. Food Chemistry, 221, 969–975.
Jiamjariyatam, R., Phucharoenrak, P., Samosorn, S., Dolsophon, K., Lorliam, W., Krajangsang, S., & Tantayotai, P. (2023). Influence of Different Extraction Methods on the Changes in Bioactive Compound Composition and Antioxidant Properties of Solid-State Fermented Coffee Husk Extracts. The Scientific World Journal, 2023(1), 6698056.
Jun, M., Fu, H.-Y., Hong, J., Wan, X., Yang, C. s., & Ho, C.-T. (2003). Comparison of Antioxidant Activities of Isoflavones from Kudzu Root (Pueraria lobata Ohwi). Journal of Food Science, 68(6), 2117–2122.
Junedi, S., Nurwijayanto, A., Simamora, D. D., Palimbongan, A. M., & Arsiningtyas, I. S. (2023). Potential Extracts of Melastomataceae Species from Mount Merapi National Park as Sunprotection Material with Antioxidation and Antiglycation Activities. Tropical Journal of Natural Product Research, 7(1), 2172-2177.
Kanakis, C. D., Tarantilis, P. A., Polissiou, M. G., & Tajmir-Riahi, H.-A. (2006). Interaction of antioxidant flavonoids with tRNA: Intercalation or external binding and comparison with flavonoid-DNA adducts. DNA and Cell Biology, 25(2), 116–123.
Kim, Y. G., & Park, H. Y. (2004). The effects of pycnogenol on DNA damage in vitro and expression of superoxide dismutase and HP1 in Escherichia coli SOD and catalase deficient mutant cells. Phytotherapy Research, 18(11), 900–905.
Kumar, P., Kumar, S., Tripathi, M. K., Mehta, N., Ranjan, R., Bhat, Z. F., & Singh, P. K. (2013). Flavonoids in the development of functional meat products: A review. Veterinary World, 6(8), 579–585.
Lestari, W., & Hajar, S. (2023). Safety evaluation and effects of cascara pulp Gayo Arabica coffee cream as anti-photoaging in animal model. Narra J, 3(2), e204.
Lestari, W., Hasballah, K., Listiawan, M. Y., & Sofia, S. (2023a). Antioxidant Activity and Compound Analysis Using Various Types of Solvents on Cascara Pulp Arabica Gayo Coffee to Treat Skin Aging. International Journal on Advanced Science, Engineering and Information Technology, 13(2), 530–535.
Lestari, W., Hasballah, K., Listiawan, M. Y., & Sofia, S. (2023b). Antioxidant and phytometabolite profiles of ethanolic extract from the cascara pulp of Coffea arabica collected from Gayo Highland: A study for potential anti-photoaging agent. F1000Research, 12.
Li, X., Mai, W., & Chen, D. (2014). Chemical study on protective effect against hydroxyl-induced DNA damage and antioxidant mechanism of myricitrin. Journal of the Chinese Chemical Society, 61(3), 383–390.
Lugasi, A. (1997). Natural Antioxidants Chemistry, Health Effects, and Applications. Edited by F. Shahidi. VIII and 432 pages, numerous figures and tables. AOCS Press, Champaign, Illinois, 1997. Price: 105.00 U$. Food / Nahrung, 41(5), 321–321.
Maddu, N. (2019). Diseases Related to Types of Free Radicals. In Antioxidants . IntechOpen, United Kingdom.
Maleš, Ž., Šarić, D., & Bojić, M. (2013). Quantitative Determination of Flavonoids and Chlorogenic Acid in the Leaves of Arbutus unedo L. Using Thin Layer Chromatography. Journal of Analytical Methods in Chemistry, 2013(1), 385473.
Mojica, B. E., Fong, L. E., Biju, D., Muharram, A., Davis, I. M., Vela, K. O., Rios, D., Osorio-Camacena, E., Kaur, B., Rojas, S. M., & Forester, S. C. (2018). The Impact of the Roast Levels of Coffee Extracts on their Potential Anticancer Activities. Journal of Food Science, 83(4), 1125–1130.
Parveen, N., & Shadab, G. G. H. A. (2017). The dual clastogenic and anti-clastogenic properties of quercetin is dose dependent. Frontiers in Bioscience - Scholar, 9(1), 139–153.
Phan-Van, T., Pham-Quang, H., & Do, A. D. (2024). Cascara kombucha potential as a functional food for fasting glucose regulation, cholesterol control, and liver function modulation: In vitro and in vivo study. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 59(11), 8908–8916.
Rabassa, M., Zamora-Ros, R., Tulipani, S., Khymenets, O., Urpi-Sarda, M., Garcia-Aloy, M., Boto, M., Vázquez, R., Rotches-Ribalta, M., Chiva-Blanch, G., Trespalacios, M. P., Llorach, R., & Andres-Lacueva, C. (2012). Flavonoids: From food and its implication in human health. In Handbook on Flavonoids: Dietary Sources, Properties and Health Benefits (pp. 427–442), Nova Science Publishers, Inc., USA.
Rohaya, S., Anwar, S. H., Amhar, A. B., Sutriana, A., & Muzaifa, M. (2023). Antioxidant activity and physicochemical composition of coffee pulp obtained from three coffee varieties in Aceh, Indonesia. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1182(1). 012063.
Schaich, K. M. (2022). Lipid Antioxidants: More than Just Lipid Radical Quenchers. In Lipid Oxidation in Food and Biological Systems: A Physical Chemistry Perspective (pp. 151–184). Springer International Publishing AG, Switzerland.
Shao, B., Mao, L., Tang, M., Yan, Z.-Y., Shao, J., Huang, C.-H., Sheng, Z.-G., & Zhu, B.-Z. (2021). Caffeic acid phenyl ester (Cape) protects against iron-mediated cellular dna damage through its strong iron-binding ability and high lipophilicity. Antioxidants, 10(5), 798.
Silva, M. de O., Honfoga, J. N. B., Medeiros, L. L. de, Madruga, M. S., & Bezerra, T. K. A. (2021). Obtaining Bioactive Compounds from the Coffee Husk (Coffea arabica L.) Using Different Extraction Methods. Molecules, 26(1), 46.
Speisky, H., Shahidi, F., de Camargo, A. C., & Fuentes, J. (2022). Revisiting the Oxidation of Flavonoids: Loss, Conservation or Enhancement of Their Antioxidant Properties. Antioxidants, 11(1), 133.
Utami, N. F., Elya, B., Hayun, H., & Kusmardi, K. (2024). Quantification of Active Compounds from Coffea canephora Pierre ex A.Froehner cascara and their Potential Against MCF-7 and HeLa. Pharmacognosy Journal, 16(3), 509–518.
Utami, N. F., Elya, B., Hayun, & Kusmardi. (2022). Measurement of quality non-specific and specific-parameters of 70% ethanol extract and simplicia from cascara coffee robusta (Coffea canephora L.) and its potency as antioxidant. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1116(1), 012008.
Vuolo, M. M., Lima, V. S., & Maróstica Junior, M. R. (2019). Phenolic Compounds. In Bioactive Compounds: Health Benefits and Potential Applications (pp. 33–50), Elsevier, Germany.
Wang, C.-S., Tian, L.-L., Zhang, J.-G., Ji, X.-W., & Zhao, G.-R. (2012). Protective effect of five natural phenolic acids against DNA oxidative damage in vitro. Chinese Journal of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 26(4), 529–533.
Wang, W.-T., Liao, S.-F., Wu, Z.-L., Chang, C.-W., & Wu, J.-Y. (2020). Simultaneous study of antioxidant activity, DNA protection and anti-inflammatory effect of Vernonia amygdalina leaves extracts. PLOS ONE, 15(7), e0235717.
Zhang, Z., Zhang, Y., Zhang, A., Liu, J., Liu, T., Zhao, J., & Zhang, S. (2024). Flos Sophorae Immaturus extracts: Effects of different extraction solvents on antioxidant, antimicrobial activities and active ingredients. South African Journal of Botany, 170, 358–366.
Zhao, C., Dodin, G., Yuan, C., Chen, H., Zheng, R., Jia, Z., & Fan, B.-T. (2005). “In vitro” protection of DNA from Fenton reaction by plant polyphenol verbascoside. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta - General Subjects, 1723(1–3), 114–123.
Zhao, Z. (2019). Iron and oxidizing species in oxidative stress and Alzheimer’s disease. Aging Medicine, 2(2), 82–87.
Zheng, Y., Li ,Xiao-Kun, Wang ,Yuehui, & and Cai, L. (2008). The Role of Zinc, Copper and Iron in the Pathogenesis of Diabetes and Diabetic Complications: Therapeutic Effects by Chelators. Hemoglobin, 32(1–2), 135–145.
Zoca, S. M., Penn, C. J., Rosolem, C. A., Alves, A. R., Neto, L. O., & Martins, M. M. (2014). Coffee processing residues as a soil potassium amendment. International Journal of Recycling of Organic Waste in Agriculture, 3(4), 155–165.
Published
2025-10-29
How to Cite
Natalia Nainggolan, D., Feby Valentina Mardani, L., Dwi Angelia Putri, S., Josephine Iskandar, C., William Novenian Wijaya, F., Ruwaimana, M., & Junedi, S. (2025). DNA-Protecting and Radical Scavenging Activities of Coffee Husk (Cascara) Robusta and Arabica Extracts. Indonesian Journal of Pharmacy. https://doi.org/10.22146/ijp.21259
Issue
Section
Research Article
