Beyond the Binary: Investigating Labour Hybridity and Regulatory Fluidity in Zimbabwe’s Contemporary Labour Market
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.22146/jsds.28977Keywords:
Keywords: formal 1; informal 2; binary 3; hybridity 4Abstract
Abstract
This paper investigates hybrid labour arrangements within Zimbabwe’s contemporary labour market, where evolving employment dynamics challenge rigid formal-informal categorizations. Utilizing Devey et al.’s (2006) Formality Index, the study employs a rigorous mixed-methods approach, incorporating ethnographic fieldwork and key informant interviews to analyse the interstitial spaces of Zimbabwe’s labour market. The findings demonstrate a widespread prevalence of hybrid arrangements that exhibit both formal and informal characteristics. These results reveal that Zimbabwe’s modern labour market transcends the traditional dualistic divide; with many enterprises and workers engaged in hybrid, semi-formal, and transitional work that blends formal regulations with informal practices. Consequently, this erosion of boundaries necessitates a re-conceptualization of labour-market classifications for effective economic analysis and policymaking. The study recommends that policymakers recognize and integrate this hybrid category into inclusive frameworks, thereby reducing exclusion, enhancing worker protections, and creating pathways to stable formal employment.
References
REFERENCES
Books
Murgia, A. (2025). Hybrid Labour: Measuring, Classifying, and Representing Workers at the Boundaries of Employment and Self-employment: Routledge. ISBN: 978-1-032-40562-9.
Piro, V., Murgia, A. & Christian, A. (2023). Hybrid areas of labour. Challenging traditional dichotomies to represent work, workers, and working trajectories: Publisher: Società Editrice Il Mulino (Il Mulino). ISBN: 978-88-15-38555-0.
Journal without DOI:
Sánchez, C., Palmiero, H., Ferrero, F., (1981). The Informal and Quasi-Formal Sectors in Cordoba: published in the ILO volume “The Urban Informal Sector in Developing Countries” (edited by S.V. Sethuraman)
Tavetose (2025). Beyond Borders: The Rise of Remote & Hybrid Work in Africa - A Zimbabwean HR Perspective.
Journal with DOI:
Andabayeva, Z., Williams, C. C., & Round, J. (2024). Reconsidering labour market dualism: Hybrid formal–informal practices in post-transition economies. Economic and Industrial Democracy, 45(2), 389–408. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143831X231199855
Benjamin, N., Beegle, K., Recanatini, F., & Santini, M. (2021). Informal economy and development: Measurement and implications. Journal of Development Economics, 150, 102–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2020.102628
Berg, J., Furrer, M., Harmon, E., Rani, U., & Silberman, M. (2021). Digital labour platforms and the future of work. Transfer: European Review of Labour and Research, 27(2), 191–207. https://doi.org/10.1177/1024258921993869
Chen, M. A. (2020). Informality and the future of work: Research and policy challenges. World Development, 134, 105–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105116
Dercon, S. (2022). Development and structural transformation. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 36(3), 67–88. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.36.3.67
Devey, M., Skinner, C., & Valodia, I. (2006). The state of micro and small enterprise development in South Africa: An overview. Journal of Southern African Studies, 32(4), 731-751. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03057070601058722
Eccles, S. (2015). Trans-informality: Co-opted informal practices in state frameworks. Journal of Organisational Ethnography, 4(1), 2-18. https://www.emerald.com/insight/publication/issn/2046-6749
Forbes (2024). Hybrid And Remote Work Still on the Rise, Despite Misconceptions, Study Shows. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1811355
Goodfellow, T. (2023). Hybrid governance and informal economies in African cities. African Affairs, 122(487), 188–210. https://doi.org/10.1093/afraf/adac048
Harris, J. R., & Todaro, M. P. (1970). Migration, unemployment and development: A two-sector analysis. The American Economic Review, 60(1), 126-142. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1811355
Kamrava, M. (2002). The political economy of semi-formality: Oil, the state and rent-seeking in the Middle East and North Africa. Third World Quarterly, 23(4), 607-631. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0143659022000012571
Kamrava, M. (2004). Structural Impediments to Economic Globalisation in the Middle East. Middle East Policy, 11(4), 96-114. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1475-4967.2004.00074.x
Kristiansen, S., Piro, V., & Williams, C. C. (2022). Beyond dualism: Formal–informal interpenetration in contemporary labour markets. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 42(9/10), 1021–1037. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSSP-03-2022-0074
Lewis, W. A. (1954). Economic development with unlimited supplies of labour. The Manchester School, 22(2), 139-191. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2590547
Meagher, K. (2021). Informality, globalisation and governance in Africa. African Studies Review, 64(3), 459–480. https://doi.org/10.1017/asr.2021.34
Mica, A. (2016). Towards a Typology of Hybrid Formalities and Informalities. Polish Sociological Review. https://www.ceeol.com/search/journal-detail?id=251
Milanovic, B. (2023). Global inequality after the pandemic. World Development, 162, 106–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2022.106120
Misztal, B. A. (2015). Formalised informality: Rules, norms, and understandings in the modern world. Sociology, 49(1), 3-19. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0038038514553507
Nunn, N. (2021). Historical development and structural change. Annual Review of Economics, 13, 213–238. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-economics-082019-122445
Rodrik, D. (2021). The future of economic convergence. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 35(2), 23–48. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.35.2.23
Smart, A. and Koster, M. (2024). Beyond Formal-Informal Dichotomies https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190854584.013.350
Srnicek, N. (2021). Platform capitalism and labour precarity. Theory, Culture & Society, 38(2), 79–101. https://doi.org/10.1177/0263276420958380
Standing, G. (2021). The precariat in the digital age. Global Labour Journal, 12(3), 231–245. https://doi.org/10.15173/glj.v12i3.4443
Williams, C. C. (2021). Re-theorising the formal–informal economy dualism: Some lessons from the Global South. Third World Quarterly, 42(7), 1507–1523. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2021.1887425
Williams, C. C., & Padmore, J. (2013). Evaluating the nature and scale of quasi-formality: Evidence from construction. Construction Management and Economics, 31(1), 73-83. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01446193.2012.728774
Woodcock, J., & Graham, M. (2020). The gig economy and digital labour. New Technology, Work and Employment, 35(3), 241–248. https://doi.org/10.1111/ntwe.12167
Yu, D. (2012). Registration dynamics in South Africa: Formalisation and the informal sector. Journal of Development Studies, 48(10), 1414-1420. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00220388.2012.676875
Zuboff, S. (2021). Surveillance capitalism and the future of work. Organization Studies, 42(9), 1421–1435. https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406211012300
Policy Paper:
African Development Bank. (2022). African Economic Outlook 2022: Supporting Climate Resilience and a Just Energy Transition in Africa. African Development Bank Group, Abidjan.
European Commission. (2022). Undeclared Work in the European Union: Special Eurobarometer 519. Brussels: European Commission, 1–120.
International Labour Organization (ILO). (2023). Women and Men in the Informal Economy: A Statistical Update. Geneva: ILO, 1–156.
Jütting, J., & de Laiglesia, J. (2021). Is informal normal? Towards more and better jobs in developing countries. OECD Development Policy Papers, 36, 1–52.
World Bank. (2021). World Development Report 2021: Data for Better Lives. Washington, DC: World Bank, 1–320.
World Bank. (2024). World Development Report 2024: Middle-Income Trap. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Books
Murgia, A. (2025). Hybrid Labour: Measuring, Classifying, and Representing Workers at the Boundaries of Employment and Self-employment: Routledge. ISBN: 978-1-032-40562-9.
Piro, V., Murgia, A. & Christian, A. (2023). Hybrid areas of labour. Challenging traditional dichotomies to represent work, workers, and working trajectories: Publisher: Società Editrice Il Mulino (Il Mulino). ISBN: 978-88-15-38555-0.
Journal without DOI:
Sánchez, C., Palmiero, H., Ferrero, F., (1981). The Informal and Quasi-Formal Sectors in Cordoba: published in the ILO volume “The Urban Informal Sector in Developing Countries” (edited by S.V. Sethuraman)
Tavetose (2025). Beyond Borders: The Rise of Remote & Hybrid Work in Africa - A Zimbabwean HR Perspective.
Journal with DOI:
Andabayeva, Z., Williams, C. C., & Round, J. (2024). Reconsidering labour market dualism: Hybrid formal–informal practices in post-transition economies. Economic and Industrial Democracy, 45(2), 389–408. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143831X231199855
Benjamin, N., Beegle, K., Recanatini, F., & Santini, M. (2021). Informal economy and development: Measurement and implications. Journal of Development Economics, 150, 102–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2020.102628
Berg, J., Furrer, M., Harmon, E., Rani, U., & Silberman, M. (2021). Digital labour platforms and the future of work. Transfer: European Review of Labour and Research, 27(2), 191–207. https://doi.org/10.1177/1024258921993869
Chen, M. A. (2020). Informality and the future of work: Research and policy challenges. World Development, 134, 105–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105116
Dercon, S. (2022). Development and structural transformation. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 36(3), 67–88. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.36.3.67
Devey, M., Skinner, C., & Valodia, I. (2006). The state of micro and small enterprise development in South Africa: An overview. Journal of Southern African Studies, 32(4), 731-751. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03057070601058722
Eccles, S. (2015). Trans-informality: Co-opted informal practices in state frameworks. Journal of Organisational Ethnography, 4(1), 2-18. https://www.emerald.com/insight/publication/issn/2046-6749
Forbes (2024). Hybrid And Remote Work Still on the Rise, Despite Misconceptions, Study Shows. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1811355
Goodfellow, T. (2023). Hybrid governance and informal economies in African cities. African Affairs, 122(487), 188–210. https://doi.org/10.1093/afraf/adac048
Harris, J. R., & Todaro, M. P. (1970). Migration, unemployment and development: A two-sector analysis. The American Economic Review, 60(1), 126-142. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1811355
Kamrava, M. (2002). The political economy of semi-formality: Oil, the state and rent-seeking in the Middle East and North Africa. Third World Quarterly, 23(4), 607-631. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0143659022000012571
Kamrava, M. (2004). Structural Impediments to Economic Globalisation in the Middle East. Middle East Policy, 11(4), 96-114. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1475-4967.2004.00074.x
Kristiansen, S., Piro, V., & Williams, C. C. (2022). Beyond dualism: Formal–informal interpenetration in contemporary labour markets. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 42(9/10), 1021–1037. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSSP-03-2022-0074
Lewis, W. A. (1954). Economic development with unlimited supplies of labour. The Manchester School, 22(2), 139-191. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2590547
Meagher, K. (2021). Informality, globalisation and governance in Africa. African Studies Review, 64(3), 459–480. https://doi.org/10.1017/asr.2021.34
Mica, A. (2016). Towards a Typology of Hybrid Formalities and Informalities. Polish Sociological Review. https://www.ceeol.com/search/journal-detail?id=251
Milanovic, B. (2023). Global inequality after the pandemic. World Development, 162, 106–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2022.106120
Misztal, B. A. (2015). Formalised informality: Rules, norms, and understandings in the modern world. Sociology, 49(1), 3-19. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0038038514553507
Nunn, N. (2021). Historical development and structural change. Annual Review of Economics, 13, 213–238. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-economics-082019-122445
Rodrik, D. (2021). The future of economic convergence. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 35(2), 23–48. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.35.2.23
Smart, A. and Koster, M. (2024). Beyond Formal-Informal Dichotomies https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190854584.013.350
Srnicek, N. (2021). Platform capitalism and labour precarity. Theory, Culture & Society, 38(2), 79–101. https://doi.org/10.1177/0263276420958380
Standing, G. (2021). The precariat in the digital age. Global Labour Journal, 12(3), 231–245. https://doi.org/10.15173/glj.v12i3.4443
Williams, C. C. (2021). Re-theorising the formal–informal economy dualism: Some lessons from the Global South. Third World Quarterly, 42(7), 1507–1523. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2021.1887425
Williams, C. C., & Padmore, J. (2013). Evaluating the nature and scale of quasi-formality: Evidence from construction. Construction Management and Economics, 31(1), 73-83. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01446193.2012.728774
Woodcock, J., & Graham, M. (2020). The gig economy and digital labour. New Technology, Work and Employment, 35(3), 241–248. https://doi.org/10.1111/ntwe.12167
Yu, D. (2012). Registration dynamics in South Africa: Formalisation and the informal sector. Journal of Development Studies, 48(10), 1414-1420. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00220388.2012.676875
Zuboff, S. (2021). Surveillance capitalism and the future of work. Organization Studies, 42(9), 1421–1435. https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406211012300
Policy Paper:
African Development Bank. (2022). African Economic Outlook 2022: Supporting Climate Resilience and a Just Energy Transition in Africa. African Development Bank Group, Abidjan.
European Commission. (2022). Undeclared Work in the European Union: Special Eurobarometer 519. Brussels: European Commission, 1–120.
International Labour Organization (ILO). (2023). Women and Men in the Informal Economy: A Statistical Update. Geneva: ILO, 1–156.
Jütting, J., & de Laiglesia, J. (2021). Is informal normal? Towards more and better jobs in developing countries. OECD Development Policy Papers, 36, 1–52.
World Bank. (2021). World Development Report 2021: Data for Better Lives. Washington, DC: World Bank, 1–320.
World Bank. (2024). World Development Report 2024: Middle-Income Trap. Washington, DC: World Bank.
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Published
2026-08-27
How to Cite
CHEURE, S., MAKOCHEKANWA, A. ., & PINDIRIRI, C. . (2026). Beyond the Binary: Investigating Labour Hybridity and Regulatory Fluidity in Zimbabwe’s Contemporary Labour Market. Journal of Social Development Studies, 7(1). https://doi.org/10.22146/jsds.28977
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