Keywords
China
Identity
NDCs
Paris Agreement
Abstract
This study examines China’s utilization of the Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR-RC) Principle to justify its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement. As the world’s largest carbon emitter and a major economic power, China faces mounting international pressure to undertake ambitious climate commitments, especially after its NDCs are evaluated as ‘insufficient’ in meeting the Paris Agreement 1.5C goal. Through the Constructivist lens of International Regime Theory, this study explores how China uses the role of identity to institutionalize CBDR-RC in the Paris Agreement, where China uses its type identity as a developing nation and role identity as the leader of the Global South to shape climate negotiations; it also forms a collective identity with the Global South countries through alliances to promote the institutionalisation of the CBDR-RC principle. Using the methods of Political Discourse Analysis and Process Tracing, this study highlights China’s active role in institutionalizing CBDR-RC in the Paris Agreement to ensure the rights to differentiated climate obligations and preferential treatment for developing nations in the climate regime, which ultimately allows China to justify its NDCs under the CBDR-RC principle through the logic of appropriateness.
References
Anthony, T. (2023, September 21). China, at UN, Presents Itself as a Member of the Global South as Alternative to a Western Model. AP News. https://apnews.com/article/un-china-global-south-general-assembly-d8620e4502757c4de9ab41543f14eccb
Bandurski, D. (2023, August 30). What Does Xi Jinping Mean by “Forever”? China Media Project. https://chinamediaproject.org/2023/08/30/what-does-xi-jinping-mean-by-forever/
Bohua, H. E. X. (2013). G-77 and China: A Symbol of Solidarity Among Developing Countries. Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in the Republic of Vanuatu. http://vu.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/sgdt/202210/t20221021_10789480.htm
Climate Action Tracker. (2019). Countries | Climate Action Tracker. Climateactiontracker.org. https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/
Climate Action Tracker. (2024, September). China. Climateactiontracker.org. https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/china/
Climate Analytics. (2024). What is China’s Pathway to Limit Global Warming to 1.5C? Climateanalytics.org. https://1p5ndc-pathways.climateanalytics.org/countries/china/ambition-gap
Collier, D. (2011). Understanding Process Tracing. PS: Political Science & Politics, 44(04), 823–830. https://polisci.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/people/u3827/Understanding%20Process%20Tracing.pdf
Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches (3rd ed.). Sage Publications. https://www.ceil-conicet.gov.ar/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/CRESWELLQualitative-Inquary-and-Research-Design-Creswell.pdf
Deng, Y., Fuentes, U., Hare, B., Welder, L., & Gidden, M. (2020). US and China Climate Goals: Scenarios for 2030 and Mid-Century. Asia Society Policy Institute & Climate Analytics. https://ca1-clm.edcdn.com/assets/aspi-ca-us_chinaclimategoals-2020.pdf
Dunmire, P. L. (2012). Political Discourse Analysis: Exploring the Language of Politics and the Politics of Language. Language and Linguistics Compass, 6(11), 735–751. https://doi.org/10.1002/lnc3.365
Farhan, J. A. (2018). “Century of Humiliation” and Its Influence on Modern Chinese Politics With Special eEmphasis on China — Japan Relations. Acta Asiatica Varsoviensia, 31, 149–163. https://journals.indexcopernicus.com/api/file/viewByFileId/847388
Geall, S. (2021, September 24). China’s Pledge to Kick the Coal Habit Comes at a Critical Moment for the Planet. The Guardian; The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2021/sep/24/china-pledge-coal-beijing-climate-crisis
Gottwald, J.-C., & Duggan, N. (2011). Expectations and Adaptation: China’s Foreign Policies in a Changing Global Environment. International Journal of China Studies, 2(1), 1–26. https://www.proquest.com/docview/1271623979?pq-origsite=gscholar&sourcetype=Scholarly%20Journals
Hallding, K., Olsson, M., Atteridge, A., Vihma, A., Carson, M., & Roman, M. (2011). Together Alone BASIC countries and the Climate Change Conundrum. In Sei.org. Nordic Council of Ministers. https://www.sei.org/mediamanager/documents/Publications/SEI-2011-Report-TogetherAloneBASICCountries.pdf
Harper, T. (2019, July 11). How the Century of Humiliation Influences China’s Ambitions Today. Imperial & Global Forum. https://imperialglobalexeter.com/2019/07/11/how-the-century-of-humiliation-influences-chinas-ambitions-today/
Hasenclever, A., Mayer, P., & Rittberger, V. (2000). Integrating Theories of International Regimes. Review of International Studies, 26(1), 3–33. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0260210500000036
Hasenclever, A., Mayer, P., & Rittberger, V. (1996). Interests, Power, Knowledge: The Study of International Regimes. Mershon International Studies Review, 40(2), 177. https://doi.org/10.2307/222775
International Energy Agency. (2023, July 11). Coal. IEA. https://www.iea.org/energy-system/fossil-fuels/coal
International Monetary Fund. (2024). GDP per Capita, Current Prices. Imf.org; International Monetary Fund. https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/NGDPDPC@WEO/OEMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD
Jiang, C. (2022). Revisting “Leadership” in Global Climate Governance: China’s Normative Engagement with the CBDRs Principle. The Chinese Journal of International Politics, 15(2). https://doi.org/10.1093/cjip/poac007
Kaufman, A. (2011). The “Century of Humiliation” and China’s National Narratives (p. 2). https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/3.10.11Kaufman.pdf
Kemp, J. (2024, March 25). China’s Hydro Generators Wait for the Rains to Come. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/chinas-hydro-generators-wait-rains-come-2024-03-22/
Keohane, R. O. (1988). International Institutions: Two Approaches. International Studies Quarterly, 32(4), 379–396.
Krasner, S. D. (1982). Structural Causes and Regime Consequences: Regimes as Intervening Variables. International Organization, 36(2), 185–205. JSTOR. https://doi.org/10.2307/2706520
Lai, H. (2021). The Evolution of China’s Climate Change Policy: International and Domestic Political Economy and a Strategy for Working with China. Journal of the British Academy, 9(s10), 69–98. https://doi.org/10.5871/jba/009s10.069
Lesolle, D. (2009). The Group of 77 and China’s Participation in Climate Change Negotiations - Publications. Heinrich Böll Stiftung | Cape Town. https://za.boell.org/en/2014/02/03/group-77-and-chinas-participation-climate-change-negotiations-publications
Li, X. (2024). Accelerating the Development of Renewable Energy in China to Support the Global Target of Tripling Installed Capacity. The Institute for Global Decarbonization Progress. https://www.igdp.cn/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/2024-11-15-IGDP-Policy-Brief-EN-Accelerating-the-Development-of-Renewable-Energy-in-China-to-Support-the-Global-Target-of-Tripling-Installed-Capacity.pdf
Liu, H., Evans, S., Zhang, Z., Song, W., & You, X. (2023, November 30). The Carbon Brief Profile: China. Carbon Brief. https://interactive.carbonbrief.org/the-carbon-brief-profile-china/index.html#industry
Mazzocco, I. (2022). How Inequality is Undermining China’s Prosperity. Www.csis.org. https://www.csis.org/analysis/how-inequality-undermining-chinas-prosperity
Ministry of Ecology and Environment of the People’s Republic of China. (2021). China’s Achievements, New Goals, and New Measures for Nationally Determined Contributions. In United Nations Framework Convention for Climate Change (Ed.), United Nations Framework Convention for Climate Change. https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/NDC/2022-06/China%E2%80%99s%20Achievements%2C%20New%20Goals%20and%20New%20Measures%20for%20Nationally%20Determined%20Contributions.pdf#page71
Ministry of Ecology and Environment of the People’s Republic of China. (2022). China’s Policies and Actions for Addressing Climate Change (2022). https://english.mee.gov.cn/Resources/Reports/reports/202211/P020221110605466439270.pdf
Ministry of Ecology and Environment of the People’s Republic of China. (2024). China’s Policies and Actions Addressing Climate Change 2024 Annual Report Ministry of Ecology and Environment of the People’s Republic of China. https://english.mee.gov.cn/News_service/news_release/202501/P020250122370358250549.pdf#page59
Myllyvirta, L., Qin, Q., Qiu, C., & Shen, X. (2023). China’s Climate Transition: Outlook 2023. In K. Miller & H. Ekberg (Eds.), The Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air. The Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air. https://energyandcleanair.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/CREA_BOELL_Chinas-Climate-Transition-Outlook-2023_EN2.pdf#page29
Myllyvirta, L., Zhang, X., & Dong, L. (2022). China’s Climate Transition: Outlook 2022. In Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air. Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air. https://energyandcleanair.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Chinas-Climate-Transition_Outlook-2022.pdf
ND-Gain Country Index. (2022). ND-GAIN Country Index rankings | ND-GAIN Index. Gain-New.crc.nd.edu. https://gain-new.crc.nd.edu/ranking
Patel, A. (2024, November). Experts: What to Expect in China’s Climate Pledge for 2035 - Carbon Brief. Carbon Brief. https://www.carbonbrief.org/experts-what-to-expect-in-chinas-climate-pledge-for-2035/
Pauw, P., Bauer, S., Richerzhagen, C., Brandi, C., & Schmole, H. (2014). Different Perspectives on Differentiated Responsibilities a State-of-the-Art Review of the Notion of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities in International Negotiations. https://www.idos-research.de/uploads/media/DP_6.2014..pdf
Qi, J. J., & Dauvergne, P. (2022). China’s Rising Influence on Climate Governance: Forging a Path for the Global South. Global Environmental Change, 73, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2022.102484
Reuters. (2022, August 26). Explainer: The Power Crunch in China’s Sichuan and Why It Matters. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/china/power-crunch-chinas-sichuan-why-it-matters-2022-08-26/
Ritchie, H., & Roser, M. (2020). CO2 and Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/co2/country/china
Rizvi, O. (2023, December 5). Bloc Profile: The G77 at COP28 . Illuminem.com. https://illuminem.com/illuminemvoices/bloc-profile-the-g77-at-cop28
Shapovalova, D. (2021). ~A~ - In Defence of the Principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities. In B. Mayer & A. Zahar (Eds.), Cambridge University Press eBooks (pp. 63–75). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108879064.006
Slotta, D. (2024, November 21). Territorial Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Emissions from Fossil Fuel Combustion and Industrial Processes in China from 1960 to 2023. Statista. https://www.statista.com/statistics/239093/co2-emissions-in-china/
Tarzi, S. M. (2003). International Regimes and International Relations Theory: Search for Synthesis. International Studies, 40(1), 23–39. https://doi.org/10.1177/002088170304000102
The State Council Information Office of the People’s Republic of China. (2023, September 26). Full Text: A Global Community of Shared Future: China’s Proposals and Actions. Scio.gov.cn. http://www.scio.gov.cn/zfbps/zfbps_2279/202309/t20230926_771260_m.html
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, (1992). https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/convention_text_with_annexes_english_for_posting.pdf
United Nations. (2015). Paris Agreement. United Nations. https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/english_paris_agreement.pdf
United Nations Development Programme. (2022, September 8). HDI | China. hdr.undp.org. https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/specific-country-data#/countries/CHN
United Nations Environment Programme. (2022). Emissions Gap Report 2022 The Closing Window: Climate crisis calls for rapid transformation of societies. United Nations Environment Programme.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. (2015). The Paris Agreement. United Nations Climate Change; United Nations. https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. (2020). Parties & Observers. Unfccc.int; UNFCCC. https://unfccc.int/parties-observers
Wang, X., Peszko, G., Brandon, C., Batmanian, G., Murisic, M., Ji, Z., Sha, F., Qiang, L., Ward, J., Ritz, Dr. R., Kejun, J., Wenying, C., Fei, T., Ke, W., Linwei, L., Xiu, Y., Yi, C., Jingfu, W., Shuaixiong, F., & Xueqin, C. (2016). Pursuing an Innovative Development Pathway: Understanding China’s NDC. In National Center for Climate Change Strategy and International Cooperation (NCSC). http://www.ncsc.org.cn/yjcg/international_review/201801/P020180920511270191310.pdf
Wang, Z. (2014, June 16). In China, “History is a Religion.” Thediplomat.com. https://thediplomat.com/2014/06/in-china-history-is-a-religion/
Welder, L., Grant, N., Aboumahboub, T., & Eyson, C. (2023). Wind and Solar Benchmarks for a 1.5°C World. Climate Analytics. https://climateanalytics.org/publications/wind-and-solar-benchmarks-for-a-1-5-c-world
Wendt, A. (1994). Collective Identity Formation and the International State. American Political Science Review, 88(2).
Wendt, A. (2003). Social Theory of International Politics. Cambridge University Press. http://www.guillaumenicaise.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Wendt-Social-Theory-of-International-Politics.pdf
World Bank. (2024, April 20). The World Bank in China. World Bank. https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/china/overview
Xi, J. (2017). Full Text of Xi Jinping’s Report at 19th CPC National Congress - China - Chinadaily.com.cn. Www.chinadaily.com.cn. https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/19thcpcnationalcongress/2017-11/04/content_34115212.htm
Xi, J. (2022). Xi Jinping: The Governance of China (Vol. 4). The Publicity Department of the CPC Central Committee and the State Council Information Office.
Xi, J. (2023). In Their Own Words: Translations from Chinese Source Documents Basic Issues of Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism With Chinese Characteristics for a New Era. China Aerospace Studies Institute. https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/Portals/10/CASI/documents/Translations/2023-10-30%20ITOW%20Xi%20Jinping%20Thought%20on%20Socialism%20with%20Chinese%20Characteristics%20for%20a%20New%20Era.pdf
Xu, D., Wang, J., & Zhao, W. (2022). The Confucian Concept of “Governance” and Its Contemporary Value. Trans/Form/Ação, 45, 15–36. https://www.redalyc.org/journal/3842/384272246002/html/
Yang, J. (2021). Understanding China’s Changing Engagement in Global Climate Governance: A Struggle for Identity. Asia Europe Journal, 20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10308-021-00643-1
Yang, S., Liu, C., & Zhang, C. (2022, October 14). New march begins – How will CPC lead China to Next Centenary Goal? - Global Times. Www.globaltimes.cn. https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202210/1277160.shtml
Yi, C. (2020, May 1). Predicting the Future: China’s Composite National Strength in 2049. www.strategictranslation.org. https://www.strategictranslation.org/articles/predicting-the-future-chinas-composite-national-strength-in-2049
Yu, X., & Xu, Z. (2021). 中国应对气候变化“不够有雄心”？汪文斌举数据回应. Thepaper.cn. https://m.thepaper.cn/newsDetail_forward_15169346
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.