Optimized Carbonization and Kinetic Analysis of Palm Kernel Shell Porous Carbon for Heavy Metal Adsorption

Mas Ayu Elita Hafizah; Azwar Manaf; Tiara Valency; Andreas Andreas; Maykel Manawan

doi:10.22146/ijc.100714

Optimized Carbonization and Kinetic Analysis of Palm Kernel Shell Porous Carbon for Heavy Metal Adsorption

https://doi.org/10.22146/ijc.100714

Mas Ayu Elita Hafizah^(1*), Azwar Manaf⁽²⁾, Tiara Valency⁽³⁾, Andreas Andreas⁽⁴⁾, Maykel Manawan⁽⁵⁾

(1) Department of Weaponry Technology, Faculty of Defense Science and Technology, Universitas Pertahanan Republik Indonesia (UNHAN), Complex of Indonesia Peace and Security Center (IPSC), Sentul, Bogor 16810, Indonesia
(2) Department of Physics, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universitas Indonesia, Depok 16424, Indonesia
(3) Department of Physics, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universitas Indonesia, Depok 16424, Indonesia
(4) Research Center of Advanced Chemistry, National Research and Innovation Agency, Puspiptek Area Building 452, Puspiptek, Serpong, Banten 15314, Indonesia
(5) Department of Weaponry Technology, Faculty of Defense Science and Technology, Universitas Pertahanan Republik Indonesia (UNHAN), Complex of Indonesia Peace and Security Center (IPSC), Sentul, Bogor 16810, Indonesia
(*) Corresponding Author

Abstract

This study explores the use of porous carbon derived from palm kernel shells to adsorb lead ions (Pb²⁺) from water. Porous carbon was produced by carbonizing palm kernel shells at different temperatures (400, 600, and 800 °C) and was evaluated for its effectiveness in a lead chloride (PbCl₂) solution. The best adsorption rate, reducing Pb²⁺ concentration by 27.5%, was observed by carbonized material at 800 °C with a 3 h contact time. Kinetic analysis suggested that the process followed a pseudo-second-order model, indicating that chemical adsorption was the dominant mechanism. The adsorption data were best described by the Freundlich isotherm, implying multilayer adsorption on an uneven surface. These findings highlight the efficient and low-cost potential of palm kernel shell-based porous carbon for removing heavy metals from wastewater. Palm kernel shell-derived porous carbon has proven to be a sustainable, cost-effective, and practical solution for mitigating Pb²⁺ contamination, positioning it as a promising candidate for environmentally friendly water treatment applications.

Keywords

porous carbons; metal absorption; heavy metal; adsorption capacity

Full Text:

Full Text PDF

References

[1] Husin, S., Wijaya, C., Ghafur, A.H.S., Machmud, T.M.Z., and Mardanugraha, E., 2023, Palm oil downstream strategy: Enhancing Indonesia’s bargaining position in international palm oil trade, Migr. Lett., 20 (5), 678–689.

[2] Li, T.M., 2018, After the land grab: Infrastructural violence and the “Mafia System” in Indonesia’s oil palm plantation zones, Geoforum, 96, 328–337.

[3] Januari, A.D., and Agustina, H., 2022, Palm oil empty fruit bunches and the implementation of zero waste and renewable energy technologies, IOP Conf. Ser.: Earth Environ. Sci., 1034, 012004.

[4] Sridhar, M.K.C., and AdeOluwa, O.O., 2009, “Palm Oil Industry Residues” in Biotechnology for Agro-Industrial Residues Utilisation: Utilisation of Agro-Residues, Eds. Singh nee’ Nigam, P., and Pandey, A., Springer, Dordrecht, Netherlands, 341–55.

[5] Faisal, M., Gani, A., and Fuadi, Z., 2021, Utilization of activated carbon from palm kernel shells as the bioadsorbent of lead waste, Int. J. GEOMATE, 20 (78), 81–86.

[6] Resdiansyah, R., Mohd Ujang, A., and Zaini, Z., 2017, Bio-asphalt concrete: From waste product to green aggregate replacement, Pertanika J. Sci. Technol., 25, 145–154.

[7] Akintunde, M.A., 2012, The Effects of paper and palm kernel shell on mechanical properties of sawdust briquettes, IOSR J. Mech. Civ. Eng., 4 (4), 11–16.

[8] Olele, P.C., Nkwocha, A.C., Ekeke, I.C., and Ileagu, M.O., and Okeke, E.O., 2016, Assessment of palm kernel shell as friction material for brake pad production, Int. J. Eng. Manage. Res., 6 (1), 281–284.

[9] Wu, H., Dong, Z., Sun, J., and Ding, K., 2024, Boosting the adsorption capacity of activated carbon prepared from Amygdalus communis shells using physicochemical co-activation method, Biomass Convers. Biorefin., 14 (15), 18121–18131.

[10] Lawtae, P., and Tangsathitkulchai, C., 2021, The use of high surface area mesoporous-activated carbon from longan seed biomass for increasing capacity and kinetics of methylene blue adsorption from aqueous solution, Molecules, 26 (21), 6521.

[11] Hoang, A.T., Kumar, S., Lichtfouse, E., Cheng, C.K., Varma, R.S., Senthilkumar, N., Phong Nguyen, P.Q., and Nguyen, X.P., 2022, Remediation of heavy metal polluted waters using activated carbon from lignocellulosic biomass: An update of recent trends, Chemosphere, 302, 134825.

[12] Balali-Mood, M., Naseri, K., Tahergorabi, Z., Khazdair, M.R., and Sadeghi, M., 2021, Toxic mechanisms of five heavy metals: Mercury, lead, chromium, cadmium, and arsenic, Front. Pharmacol., 12, 643972.

[13] Hama Aziz, K.H., Mustafa, F.S., Omer, K.M., Hama, S., Hamarawf, R.F., and Rahman, K.O., 2023, Heavy metal pollution in the aquatic environment: efficient and low-cost removal approaches to eliminate their toxicity: A review, RSC Adv., 13 (26), 17595–17610.

[14] Liu, S., Cui, S., Guo, H., Wang, Y., and Zheng, Y., 2021, Adsorption of lead ion from wastewater using non-crystal hydrated calcium silicate gel, Materials, 14 (4), 842.

[15] Rashidi, N.A., and Yusup, S., 2019, Production of palm kernel shell-based activated carbon by direct physical activation for carbon dioxide adsorption, Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res., 26, 33732–33746.

[16] Phothong, K., Tangsathitkulchai, C., and Lawtae, P., 2021, The analysis of pore development and formation of surface functional groups in bamboo-based activated carbon during CO₂ activation, Molecules, 26 (18), 5641.

[17] Andas, J., Rahman, M.L.A., and Yahya, M.S.M., 2017, Preparation and characterization of activated carbon from palm kernel shell, IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng., 226 (1), 012156.

[18] Harper, G., Sommerville, R., Kendrick, E., Driscoll, L., Slater, P., Stolkin, R., Walton, A., Christensen, P., Heidrich, O., Lambert, S., Abbott, A., Ryder, K., Gaines, L., and Anderson, P., 2019, Recycling lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles, Nature, 575 (7781), 75–86.

[19] Díez, D., Urueña, A., Piñero, R., Barrio, A., and Tamminen, T., 2020, Determination of hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin content in different types of biomasses by thermogravimetric analysis and pseudocomponent kinetic model (TGA-PKM method), Processes, 8 (9), 1048.

[20] Sorek, N., Yeats, T.H., Szemenyei, H., Youngs, H., and Somerville, C.R., 2014, The implications of lignocellulosic biomass chemical composition for the production of advanced biofuels, BioScience, 64 (3), 192–201.

[21] Destyorini, F., Irmawati, Y., Hardiansyah, A., Widodo, H., Yahya, I.N.D., Indayaningsih, N., Yudianti, R., Hsu, Y.I., and Uyama, H., 2021, Formation of nanostructured graphitic carbon from coconut waste via low-temperature catalytic graphitization, Eng. Sci. Technol., Int. J., 24 (2), 514–523.

[22] Hadjiivanov, K.I., Panayotov, D.A., Mihaylov, M.Y., Ivanova, E.Z., Chakarova, K.K., Andonova, S.M., and Drenchev, N.L., 2021, Power of infrared and Raman spectroscopies to characterize metal-organic frameworks and investigate their interaction with guest molecules, Chem. Rev., 121 (3), 1286–1424.

[23] Dostert, K.H., O’Brien, C.P., Mirabella, F., Ivars-Barceló, F., and Schauermann, S., 2016, Adsorption of acrolein, propanal, and allyl alcohol on Pd(111): A combined infrared reflection–absorption spectroscopy and temperature programmed desorption study, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 18 (20), 13960–13973.

[24] Nandiyanto, A.B.D., Ragadhita, R., and Fiandini, M., 2022, Interpretation of Fourier transform infrared spectra (FTIR): A practical approach in the polymer/plastic thermal decomposition, Indones. J. Sci. Technol., 8, 113–126.

[25] Spencer, W., Ibana, D., Singh, P., and Nikoloski, A.N., 2024, Effect of surface area, particle size and acid washing on the quality of activated carbon derived from lower rank coal by KOH activation, Sustainability, 16 (14), 5876.

[26] Chen, W., Chen, Y., Wang, Y., and Zhao, N., 2024, Combining activated carbon adsorption and CO₂ carbonation to treat fly ash washing wastewater and recover high-purity calcium carbonate, Water, 16 (20), 2896.

[27] Hidayu, A.R., and Muda, N., 2016, Preparation and characterization of impregnated activated carbon from palm kernel shell and coconut shell for CO₂ capture, Procedia Eng., 148, 106–113.

[28] Hisbullah, H., Kana, S., Nabila, N., and Faisal, M., 2022, Characterization of physically and chemically activated carbon derived from palm kernel shells, Int. J. GEOMATE, 23 (97), 203–210.

[29] Mouni, L., Merabet, D., Bouzaza, A., and Belkhiri, L., 2011, Adsorption of Pb(II) from aqueous solutions using activated carbon developed from Apricot stone, Desalination, 276 (1), 148–153.

[30] Boonsombuti, A., Phinichkha, N., Supansomboon, S., and Luengnaruemitchai, A., 2023, The use of lignin from palm kernel shell (PKS) to fabricate oil palm mesocarp fiber (OPMF) particleboards, Int. J. Adhes. Adhes., 125, 103425.

[31] Al-Harby, N.F., Albahly, E.F., and Mohamed, N.A., 2021, Kinetics, isotherm and thermodynamic studies for efficient adsorption of Congo red dye from aqueous solution onto novel cyanoguanidine-modified chitosan adsorbent, Polymers, 13 (24), 4446.

[32] Budhiary, K.N.S., and Sumantri, I., 2021, Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm adsorption using activated charcoal from banana peel to reduce total suspended solid (TSS) levels in tofu industry liquid waste, IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng., 1053 (1), 012113.

[33] Kaushal, A., and Singh, S.K., 2017, Critical analysis of adsorption data statistically, Appl. Water Sci., 7 (6), 3191–3196.

[34] Abd Wahab Sha'arani, S., Ros Saidon Khudri, M.A.M., Othman, A.R., Halmi, M.I.E., Yasid, N.A., and Shukor, M.Y., 2019, Kinetic analysis of the adsorption of the brominated flame retardant 4-bromodiphenyl ether onto biochar-immobilized Sphingomonas sp., Biorem. Sci. Technol. Res., 7 (1), 8–12.

[35] Anjum, A., Mazari, S.A., Hashmi, Z., Jatoi, A.S., Abro, R., Bhutto, A.W., Mubarak, N.M., Dehghani, M.H., Karri, R.R., Mahvi, A.H., and Nasseri, S., 2023, A review of novel green adsorbents as a sustainable alternative for the remediation of chromium (VI) from water environments, Heliyon, 9 (5), e15575.

[36] Tran, H.N., 2023, Applying linear forms of pseudo-second-order kinetic model for feasibly identifying errors in the initial periods of time-dependent adsorption datasets, Water, 15 (6), 1231.

[37] Xie, N., Wang, H., and You, C., 2024, Enhanced adsorption of Pb²⁺ by the oxygen-containing functional groups enriched activated carbon, Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res., 31 (21), 31028–31041.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.22146/ijc.100714